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With its unique requirement for blending together such a wide range of the sciences, aviation has been one of the most stimulating, challenging, and prolific fields of technology in the history of mankind.

Its numerous products, evolving since the Wright Flyer, have set a pattern for the course of many human endeavors. At the same time, its uniqueness as a technology is highlighted by its touching so many of the esthetic senses.

The evolution of the F-86 is a fitting example of this. It was beautiful, it was exciting and its outstanding Korean combat record against the MiG speaks for its quality (Figure 1).

We’ll explore the evolution of the F-86’s swept-back wing that was, of course, fundamental to the outstanding success of this fighter. It began 36 years ago with a straight wing, evolved into the F-86s we know, and is still ranks among the most esthetic airplane designs.

The Beginnings
The mid-1940s were paradoxical times marked by the unprecedented 1944 wartime peak annual production of nearly 100,000 aircraft, followed by the collapse or demobilization of the industry at the close of WWII (1945). It also marked by the excitement of the military’s conversion to jet propulsion and the beginnings of transonic and supersonic flight.

With the war still on, D-Day still months in the future, jet propulsion was beginning to have a profound effect on qualitative air superiority. The U.S. had placed several contracts aimed at rapidly introducing large quantities of jet fighters into the operational inventory. The P-80 was becoming operational, the P-84 was under contract and discussions were underway with other manufacturers about converting their production lines to jets.

As every experienced designer knows, even radical new designs tend to evolve through an iterative process of modification of already proven configurations and design features. Such was the case for North American’s new jet fighters. In view of the outstanding success of the P-51 Mustang, the Navy had contracted for a carrier-based version, the prototype of which successfully operated from the carrier USS Shangri La in November 1944. But, North American Aviation’s (NAA) Confidential Design Group, under Ed Schmued, was busy trying to work out the design of a jet powered version of the Mustang. One interesting variant combined both turboprop and turbojet power, but of a slightly later vintage. Several such designs were proposed to the Air Force, but prior to any selection, the Navy decided to forego production of the carrier-based Mustang and opted instead for development of a new jet fighter, the XFJ-1. As grossly different as the overall configurations were, the similarity of the XFJ-1 wing to the Mustang is equally apparent. To maintain full advantage of the high speed wing, a circular inlet and straight-through duct replaced the more conventional side or wing inlets. The cockpit sitting atop this circular duct added to the XFJ-l’s somewhat dumpy appearance.

Shortly after the XFJ-1 began, the Air Force selected a similar straight wing design that was designated the XP-86. The primary differences stemmed from elimination of the design constraints for carrier suitability and slimming down the bulky fuselage by shifting some fuselage fuel to wing tanks. Also, by this time, duct design criteria had been developed that allowed maintaining high recoveries with an elliptical inlet with enough longitudinal curvature to further slim down the fuselage.

While the design of the two NAA fighters progressed in Inglewood, Calif., the D-Day Invasion had taken place in Europe and our aircraft began to encounter Germany’s new Me-262, which had become operational as an interceptor in September 1944. By early 1945, captured German wind-tunnel data on wing sweepback had been obtained by Technical Intelligence Survey teams and brought back to NAA. NACA’s Bob Jones had developed his wing sweep theory but at this time, little had been done in the U.S. to verify the concept or to understand it more fully. Larry Green, NAA’s head of Design Aerodynamics, was competent at technical German, so he began to spend a great deal of time studying these reports and related interrogations of captured German scientists and engineers. A captured Me-262 was made available to NAA for detailed study at Los Angeles. Although the Me-262 had slight sweepback (15 degrees), there were rumors of an experimental prototype with fully sweptback wings. This was of particular interest to Green since he had earlier conducted . . .

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In 1927, a wave of enthusiasm for aviation spread around the world. Smitten with Lindberghitis, citizens began a quest "to take to the skies." Youngsters built and flew balsa wood gliders. Men resurrected WWI aircraft or constructed aircraft in their backyards. Women discovered that flying was one sport that provided a sense of freedom and confidence from societal constraints. As Joseph Corn stated in his book, The Winged Gospel, "As pilots, women experienced feelings of strength, mastery and confidence which, particularly at a time when Victorian norms still rendered all strenuous effort and most activity by women suspect, seemed delicious indeed."

A small handful of extraordinary women overcame male prejudice and paved the way for a generation of competent and accomplished pilots. They effectively navigated both motorized aircraft and gliders. This article focuses on the pioneering American women glider pilots.

Maxine Dunlap
1908-1942
A resident of Pleasanton, Calif., Maxine Dunlap earned private pilot license #5894 in April 1928. She quickly accumulated 60 hours in the air before setting her sights on motorless flight. Following three weeks of lessons, Maxine entered the first glider contest held by the California Gliders Association on April 29, 1929. The event took place over the Ocean Beach sand dunes near San Francisco. Intending to qualify for a glider rating, she flew a Ferguson glider similar to a German training craft. She traveled 990 feet while staying aloft for 50 seconds. This exceeded the minimum of 30 seconds to receive a Class 3 glider license and eclipsed Amelia Earhart’s glider flight of 17 seconds. The U.S. Department of Commerce awarded her glider certificate number 8. She became the first American woman to obtain a glider pilot license of any kind. Even though she was airborne for less than a minute, Maxine successfully executed two S curves and most important, a smooth landing.
In March 1930, Maxine became president of the Bay Region California Gliding Club and supported competitions in the area. She also continued flying motor-powered aircraft. Her performances in the many air races across the country were notable. In 1935, she set a new 100-km world’s record for women for light airplanes in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Her top speed was 76.799 mph in Spartan’s first monoplane, a C2-60.
Maxine’s second husband, Coca-Cola executive and All-American tackle, Joseph J. Bennett Jr., provided the financial support necessary for his wife to continue flying. She purchased a 260-hp Stinson Gull Wing and became the family’s capable pilot. A Ninety-Nine’s newsletter related an amusing incident in her flying career when she made a forced landing in a rose garden. No damage was done, but a crowd quickly gathered. From the multitude of on-lookers a masculine voice drawled, "Now isn’t that just like a woman – landing on a bed of roses."[1]

Anne Lindbergh
1906-2001
In 1930, both Charles and Anne Lindbergh switched from powered flight to motorless flight. They traveled to San Diego, the Air Capitol of the West, to take lessons from Hawley Bowlus, a former construction superintendent for the Spirit of St. Louis. He now operated the successful Bowlus Glider School and possessed a stellar reputation as a glider designer and instructor. Nine of the first ten licensed glider pilots in the United States were graduates of his school.

Charles successfully earned his first class glider license as Anne intently observed the process. Then, it was her turn. On January 29, 1930, she completed the primary course with 10 short flights in Tillie the Toiler (598M) and was ready for her solo flight. It was made from Mt. Soledad, an 800 foot . . .

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In the mid-1920s, two young aeronautical engineers - destined to achieve greatness in the years ahead - were hard at work on the development of racing aircraft and cabin transports for the Société Industrielle des Métaux et du Bois, a Paris-based aviation firm. The two men were Alexander Kartveli and ArmancThieblot, both of whom later became chief engineers of Fairchild companies.

Kartveli, son of a magistrate in the Georgian city of Tiflis, had served as an artillery officer in the army of His Imperial Highness Nicholas II and had been sent to France in 1919 to continue his military education. With the takeover of his native Georgia by the forces of the revolution, Kartveli decided to remain in Paris. There he enrolled in both L’Ecole Superieure Aeronautique and L’Ecole Superieure d’Electricite. Armand Thieblot, born in Paris, had studied mathematics at the Sorbonne (University of Paris) and worked for almost a year at Société Generale Optique, a firm specializing in the design and manufacture of optical instruments. After a year of compulsory military training in the air service of the French army, Thieblot elected to pursue an aeronautical engineering career at Société Industrielle and there Kartveli later joined him.

Together with Edmond Chagniard, another young engineer who subsequently left the aviation field, Kartveli and Thieblot participated in the design of the single-seat Bernard SIMB V.2 (sometimes referred to as the Bernard-Ferbois V.2 being built by Société Industrielle des Métaux et du Bois ("SIMB") solely to capture the world’s maximum speed record. (In 1924 the existing record was 266.58 mph established under the rules and regulations of the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by Lt. A.J. Williams, USN, at Mitchel Field in a Curtiss R-2C1 racer.)

The Bernard SIMB V.2, powered by a 450-hp Hispano-Suiza engine, was completed first. Adjt. Chef. (Warrant Officer) A. Bonnett flew the Bernard at Istres, France, on November 11, 1924, at a speed of 243. 68mph, which broke the existing French record but fell far short of the recognized world mark. Taken back to the factory, a number of design modifications were made including shortening the wing span and aerodynamic clean up. One month later, on December 11, 1924, again at Istres, France, Bonnett’s Bernard was clocked at 278 mph, a speed which, indeed, bettered the official maximum speed for land monoplanes. However, this record did not stand. Bonnett made a second attempt on the same day, and was able to achieve a maximum speed of 278.48 mph, setting a world record that remained unbroken for eight years. (On September 3, 1932, Maj. Jimmy Doolittle recaptured the record for the United States, piloting his Granville Gee Bee Super-Sportster with an 800-hp P&W Wasp at an officially verified speed of 294.38 mph at Cleveland, Ohio.)

After the outstanding success of the monoplane racers, Kartveli, Thieblot and Chagniard were involved in the design of a Bernard cabin monoplane. But much of their thinking - and dreaming - revolved about the feasibility of transatlantic air travel. This was not mere visionary speculation; the trio soon set about specifically defining the aircraft they had in . . .

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The story of the V-2 rocket stretches behind and beyond its sneak attacks on London, encompassing development by space-flight dreamers, production by concentration-camp inmates, attacks from shifting hard-to-find sites, further development in Russia and the U.S., and motivating rockets to outer space. Building it, started before German leader Adolph Hitler’s arrival; then it was ignored, later cancelled, and finally embraced by him; leading to Russia, the U.S. and China reaching space and the moon.

The inventors of the V-2 rocket, probably the 20th century’s biggest aviation surprise, were inspired by early science fiction. France’s Jules Verne (1828-1905), wrote an imaginative story and its sequel in 1865 and 1870: "From the Earth to the Moon" and "Around the Moon," that created space flight enthusiasts worldwide. He was not the first, much earlier the Greek Lucian of Samosata (120-180 A.D.) originally brought the subject up. Englishman H.G. Wells’ "War of the Worlds" in 1897, was almost as exciting. Then, in Russia, Europe and the U.S., activity intensified on imagining, designing and building a rocket to get people to the Moon or Mars. At that time, manned rocket capabilities did not extend beyond the imagination of Jules Verne. This was in spite of his first mode of travel to space being in a cannon shell, using rockets only for directional control. Verne’s books continued to be published long after his death, and he is the second most translated author in the world. He wrote five space-flight novels and more than 50 exotic travel novels. At least a dozen movies were made from Verne books.

Seventy years after Verne, the development of the V-2 rocket Vengeance weapon in Peenemunde, Germany, was done by people who mostly wanted nothing more than to follow Jules Verne to the Moon. This was amply reflected by their actions over many years. V-2 development, production and operation had different leaders, organizations and locations. This story focuses on how each came about. The V-2 was a tremendous technical achievement, with such advanced capability that few could imagine or anticipate its existence. But it was a poor use of resources. Its story traces from Russia to France to the U.S. to Germany, and eventually to the Moon with the U.S. and Russia (Russia getting there first).1 The differences in technology and motivation resident in these countries made for an uneven pathway.

In Europe, Verne’s followers were playing with powder rockets and dreaming of going to space. They were NOT dreaming of rockets as weapons, although such had been their use in Asia and Europe since the early 1200s. Early on, there were four noted space and rocket pioneers: the Russian teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, American physicist Robert Goddard, French space-scientist Robert Esnault-Pelterie, and German-Rumanian writer and rocket enthusiast Herman Oberth.

In Russia, schoolmaster Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1878-79 had read Verne, analyzed various aspects of space flight, the control of rockets and their engines, use of dirigibles and other possible ways to get into orbit and travel in space. He also published interplanetary travel stories that inspired his fellow Russians, who built the rockets that he only imagined. Those first Russian liquid-fuel designs were imagined in 1898, and flown in summer 1932 at low thrusts, but halted during Stalin pogroms. Tsiolkovsky died in 1935.

In 1912 Esnault-Pelteri gave popular lectures in Paris on spaceflight with solid- and liquid-fueled rockets based on studies he began around 1907. That year, the SS Titanic used solid-rocket flares to signal its distress after hitting the iceberg and needing rescue. Esnault-Pelterie in the 1930s published his book "L’Astronautique" on space flight, and lived to 1957, knowing spaceflight was finally happening.

In 1909, Robert Goddard in Massachusetts was also inspired by Verne for space flight, and started with powder rockets in 1915 because they were much simpler to construct. Goddard soon found they had limited range because powder fuel was mostly binder that did not burn with much energy, while liquid fuels burned with significantly more effectiveness in producing thrust. In 1917-18 he worked for the Army, and proposed liquid rockets, which they did not respond to. Much later, Goddard made the world’s first liquid-fueled rocket flight on March 16, 1926. He eventually filed 214 liquid-rocket patents. Most interestingly, some of Goddard’s rocket flights were done at . . .

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This issue of the Forum focuses on a collection of photos submitted by Steve Johnston covering about a 12 year period and a variety of different types.

The FORUM is presented as an opportunity for each member to participate in the Journal by submitting interesting or unusual photographs. Most of the images come from contributions to the AAHS archives. Unfortunately, with older images the contributor information has been lost. Where known, we acknowledge them.

Negatives, slides, black-and-white or color photos with good contrast may be used if they have smooth surfaces. Digital submissions are also acceptable, but please provide high resolution images (>3,000 pixels wide). Please include as much information as possible about the image such as: date, place, msn (manufacturer’s serial number), names, etc., plus proper photo credit (it may be from your collection but taken by another photographer).

Send submissions to the Editorial Committee marked "Forum of Flight," P.O. Box 483, Riverside, CA 92502-0483. Mark any material to be returned: "Return to (your name and complete address)." Or you may wish to have your material added to the AAHS photo archives.

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